India is perhaps the
only country in the world where one can encounter all
the major living religions. Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism were born
in India; Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism (Parsi) and Judaism were brought
to India. Although, Hindus comprise the majority, the population of Muslims in
India out-numbers the total population of many Muslim countries. India has the
second – largest Muslim (Islam) population in the world, after Indonesia and
ahead of Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Buddhism was born in
India, and has adherents in China, Japan, Korea, and many countries of
Southeast Asia. The Sikhs, the Jains, the Parsis and the Jews who follow their
own faith, may be miniscule minorities but they testify to the secular nature
of the Indian State and its pluralism of Indian society. All these religions
have enriched the artistic and literary inheritance of India.
Zoroastrianism
The Parsis are the
descendants of Persians, who emigrated to India in the 8th Century
after the Arab conquest of Iran. They brought with them the ancient Persian
religion founded by Zoroaster in the 6th Century B.C. This religion
is based on the worship of Ahura Mazda – Wise Lord- who is eternally in
conflict with Ahriman, the Evil Force. The Zend Avesta, which
is the scripture of the Parsis, includes the Gathas
or songs, composed by Zoroaster.
The Parsis settled down
on the western coast of India and adopted the Gujarati language. They have
always adhered strictly to their ancient faith. In their agiaries – fire
temples – the sacred flame is always kept burning. The Parsis still retain
their Iranian physical features, a light olive complexion, an aquiline nose
bright and black eyes. The office of dastur – priest – is hereditary. The dasturs
are dressed entirely in white, and they are held in great esteem. Although the
Parsis are conservative in their religion, they have identified themselves with
their fellow-countrymen in other areas. They have contributed to the
educational, scientific and industrial progress of India. In the early phase of
nationalism, the Parsi community – produced great leaders like Dadabhai
Naoroji. The Parsi business house of ‘Tata’ is one of the leading commercial
conglomerates in the country, and one of India’s leading Multi National
Coporations.
Judaism
Though their number
never exceeded 30,000 in the vast ocean of India’s hundreds of millions, India
has two ancient indigenous Jewish communities, the Malayalam-speaking Cochins
and the Marathi-speaking Bene Israel – children of Israel. Today, the Indian
Jewish population is about 5,000. The oldest Synagogue
outside Israel is in Kerala. Jews
Synagogue migrated to
India, more than 2,000 years ago.
It has often been
suggested that Hinduism is not a religion but a way of life. It has no specific
founder, no ‘holy book’ or an organized church. Hinduism encompasses a wide
range of beliefs from the most abstruse metaphysical speculation about ultimate
reality to elaborate worship. Absolute monism and the Abstract coexist with
colourful popular cults. Hinduism does not obligate its adherent to visit a
temple or observe any special ritual. It allows great flexibility in matters of
individual practice and is quite eclectic in doctrinal matters.
The Hindu pantheon of
gods is large and comprises the holy trinity Brahama - the Creator, Vishnu- the
Preserver and Shiva – the Destroyer. Rama and Krishna, are each the
incarnations of Vishnu. There are others who accord primacy to the female
deities – Kali and Shakti – considered the embodiment of the cosmic energy.
Actually the religion is
described as Sanatan dharma – eternal cosmic law that upholds mankind. The
substantial body of this dharma traces its origins to the hymns of the Vedas and the Upanishads – metaphysical discourses on vedic
texts. This is the reason that it is also known as the vedic religion. The gods
invoked in these ancient hymns are Indra – the rain god, Agni –
the fire god, Varun – the ocean god, Ushas – the dawn and Rudra
– a fierce wailing god.
The Upanishads are an
expression of Indian intellectual energy at its most creative. Speculations regarding
the Atman – the Self and Brahman – the cosmic reality – are
directed towards solving the mystery of human existence.
Buddhist philosophy
adopted many of the concepts formulated in the Upanishads and refined them. It
is in the Upanishads, that we first encounter the idea of rebirth and the
exaltation of moksha – the goal of liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
The epics mark the next
stage in the evolution of Hindu faith. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
the two great epics of Hindu India were compiled between the 4th
Century B.C. and 4th Century A.D. and introduce the concept of the
supreme deity manifesting itself in human form, to intervene in the affairs of
this world. These incarnations were meant to reassure the devotees in difficult
situations.
The most famous
spiritual discourse of India – the Bhagwad Gita, popularly
known as the Gita – is embedded in the text of the Mahabharata – in the guise
of exhortation of an unwilling hero Arjun, by Lord Krishna. On the surface, the
Mahabharata is the tragic tale of a violent family feud that snowballed into a
devastating war, but in the context of the Gita, it becomes a metaphor of the
cosmic battle between the moral and the immoral. The Gita is significant for
the two key concepts it expounds: the first is the idea of Nishkam Karma
– the performance of duty without any expectations, the second is the surrender
of the self before the deity for deliverance. The origins of Bhakti
– the path of devotion, can be traced to this.
The Adi Shankara, a
Brahmin born in Kerala in the 7th Century after the birth of Christ,
went back to the Upanishads to purge the Sanatan Dharma of the impurities that
had crept into it. This reformulation of the doctrine is known as Vedanta – the
word may loosely be translated as “beyond the Vedas”. The key concept he
expounded is “maya” – the world as an illusion – and once this illusion
is pierced, dawns the realization of the unity of the atman – the
individual self, and the brahman, the supreme cosmic reality. This
monist conception gives the name advaita, to his teachings.
The majority of the
population was not concerned with abstractions, however impressive or
intriguing. They required a personal god to provide solace and hope. Even
Buddhism an essentially rational creed – had to incorporate the concept of bodhisattvas
or benign enlightened souls who postpone their own liberation to help others,
to retain its hold on the masses. A strong devotional stream evolved
simultaneously with metaphysics during the Gupta period.
The first Hindu temples
date back to this period. This was the birth of the Bhagwat Dharma. In
subsequent centuries it gathered great fand spread across the land. This
provided the core of popular contemporary Hinduism.
The Puranas are the
books that compile the mythology that narrates the exploits of various gods,
who by the end of the first millennium after the birth of Christ had replaced
the earlier deities.
Prior to the Aryan
invasion, Indian society was matriarchal, with the worship of a Mother Goddess.
The idea of a
hierarchical patriarchal society divided according to birth is first
articulated in the Rig Veda. A now famous verse – Purush Sukta – outlines
the division of society into fur varna – the word literally translates
as colour, and suggests that at first the distinction may have been made
according to the colour of skin between the fair skinned Aryans and the dark
complexioned people they had encountered. This poetic account tells of
different varnas originating from a single source, the living body of a
gigantic primordial Man and each varna is awita particular occupation
and code of conduct. Brahmins – the Priests – were from his mouth, Kashatriyas
– the warriors, from his arms, Vaishyas – the traders – from the thighs S
– those engaged in menial tasks – from his feet. It is obvious that in the
beginning caste was not dependent on birth but was defined by occupation. The
scheme sought to formalize a division of specialised labour. There was no rigid
compartmentalization either. Another verse in the Rig Veda tells us of a
Brahmin poet whose mother was performing physical labour - grinding grain. It
was with passage of time that caste was linked to birth and the idea of a
hierarchy of castes established itself. While the varna scheme is the
formal model of reference, and of legend, the social units of, everyday life
are the jati, defined as collectivities which reproduce their own kind.
It affords a dynamic and
mobile society of proliferating social groups, which formed in response to a
variety of circumstances. Each group had an occupation and a social milieu, and
each found a niche within the order. But the order was not the static structure
of varna, it is the living flux of jati, where power and wealth
jostle with myth and text.
Powerful notions of pure
and impure underlie interactions between jati, carefully governing
exchange of goods, restricting marriages within the group and regulating occupations
of individuals, lest they affect the dharma – the prescribed code of
conduct- of the jati.
Jati has been the most important
consideration in choice of occupation and in traditional marriage. While the
hold of jati is weakening both in the cities and villages, pressures of
electoral politics in a democracy has reinforced primordial loyalties based on
irrational caste prejudices.
The founder of Buddhism,
Prince Siddharth, was born six centuries before the birth of Christ, in the
house of Prince Shudhodhana, a Sakya chieftain in the Licchavi republic. The
young prince was reluctant to lead a life of idle pleasure and showed no
enthusiasm to succeed his father to public office. He was married and sired a
son but the restlessness continued. One day he left the palace renouncing the
world in search of knowledge that would liberate him from the misery of
existence. He wandered in search of enlightenment and practised severe
austerities. After long years of meditation he finally reached the goal he had
set himself, while sitting under a banyan tree on the banks of river Niranjana
in the proximity of present day Bodhgaya. From this day he came to be known as the Buddha – the enlightened one.
The Buddha travelled to
Sarnath near Varanasi and delivered his first sermon to five disciples sharing
the liberating knowledge he had attained. He outlined in simple words a few
pragmatic concepts that were in course of time to become a great world religion.
The teachings of the
Buddha can be summarised in a few unambiguous words. These are called the Four
Noble Truths. Human existence is miserable and the cause of this misery is
attachment. We experience misery due to illness, old age, and death. Separation
from loved ones and union with those whom we detest also causes misery. To
overcome misery we must eliminate its root cause. Attachment can be overcome by
an effort to attain equipoise. The Buddha prescribed the noble eight-fold path
to attain serenity of mind. He was of the view that harsh asceticism is of no
use and tormenting the body does not guarantee salvation. He was fond of
comparing the human body with the Veena – a stringed instrument - it can
only create music when the string is neither slack nor too tight.
This is why this is also
called the middle path. The Buddha emphasized compassion as the greatest virtue
and exposed the hollowness of rituals.
The Buddha used Pali – the language of the masses – and not Sanskrit,
the language of the learned classes, to spread his message. The gospel he
preached was one of humanism. He tried to purge society of the inequity imposed
by a rigid caste system. His teachings became immensely popular in his lifetime
and were codified after his passing away.
Emperor Ashoka
Maurya ( 273-232 B. C. ) was the greatest patron of Buddhism. He sent
emissaries to Sri Lanka, Egypt, China, Afghanistan, Burma and South-East Asia;
Buddhism took root in Asia from this time.
In the first century
after the birth of Christ a Great Council of Buddhism was convened by Emperor
Kanishka who was a patron of Buddhism. This event marks the splitting of
Buddhism into two branches. Mahayana – the great vehicle incorporated the
concept of Bodhisattava – a sentient being who has forsaken his own salvation
to help others and some elements of devotional worship popular in Hinduism.
Hinayana or the lesser vehicle retained its pristine Spartan form and
concentrated on doctrinal matters.
As Buddhism spread,
Mahayana struck roots in Tibet, Nepal, Central Asia, China and Japan while
Hinayana made inroads in Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand. During the medieval
period Buddhism came in contact with the philosophy and practice of Tantra-esoteric ritual - in eastern India
and this resulted in the evolution of Vajrayana - the adamantine
vehicle.
Jainism
The founder of Jainism
is recognised as Mahavira. He was born before the Buddha and preached at about
the same time. His original name was Vardhaman, but he is better known by his
title Mahavira – Great Hero. He shared many things with the Buddha. Both were
Kshatriyas of royal descent and went through prolonged and rigorous discipline
after renouncing worldly life, both rejected caste barriers and questioned the
sacredness of the Vedas.
The theme of
self-conquest, common to all religious, is supremely important to the Jainas.
The very world Jaina is derived from ‘jina’ means conqueror. Carrying
the idea of self-conquest to its extreme limit, Jainism has become the world’s
most rigorously ascetic faith. God has no place in this system. The popular
gods of Hinduism are accepted, but they are placed lower than the Jinas, who
alone are considered worthy of worship. Mahavira, though accepted as the
founder of the faith is said to be the last of a line of 24 Jinas. All of them
are said to have attained prefect wisdom – Kaivalya – by vanquishing their
desires and breaking their bonds with the material world. The jinas are also
known as Tirthankaras – those who facilitate the passage – the refers to the
transition from the material to the spiritual realm, from bondage to freedom.
Jainism not only rejects
the notion of a Personal God, which is assumed by most religions, but also the
ideas of a single impersonal Absolute Reality. It regards each living being as
an independent Jiva – soul. In this world, the soul is usually permeated
by material particles through the working of karma. To
attain liberation, a dual process is necessary: the incursion of new karma
particles must be stopped and those that have already tainted the soul must be
expelled. Thisis possible only through the right faith, the right knowledge and
the right conduct: the tri-ratna or three jewels, of Jainism.
Right conduct is spelled
out as the rejection of falsehood, theft, lust, greed and violence; of these
five sins, violence is the most heinous. The highest virtue is the total
abjuration of any thought or action, which can hurt a living being. Ahimsa paramo dharma: Non-violence is the supreme
religion, is a Jain motto that was adopted by Mahatma Gandhi. Some of the
Jainas carry their non-violence, like their asceticism to great lengths. Jain
monks are often seen with their nose and mouth covered by a fine cloth mask to
ensure that they do not involuntarily ‘kill’ germs while breathing.
Arab traders came to
India as early as the 7th century A. D. Subsequently, Muslim invades
made sporadic raids into India from time to time until, at the end of the 12th
century, the first Muslim kingwas establat Delhi. TMuslims gradually extended
Jama Masjid, Delhi their
rule eastwards and southwards. In the first phase, Islamic rule in India was
aggressive, but it was not long before the temper changed. The mystics of
Islam, known as Sufis, played an important pin spthe message of universal love
and toning down the aggressive trends in Islam. This message was conveyed most
effectively by the classical Persian poets, particularly by Rumi who expressed
the spirit of Sufism through beautiful symbols and images. Persian, not Arabic,
was the court language during Muslim rule. The Sufi poets were very
popular in India throughout the Middle Ages.
Renowned Sufi
saints came and settled in India. Among these, Moinuddin
Chisti of Ajmer and Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi were the most influential.
Even today festivals in their honour are celebrated annually and attended by
people of all faiths. Amir Khusrau, poet, musician and historian, was a
disciple of Nizamuddin. Khusrau was famous as a poet in the classical Persian
tradition, but he also wrote religious poetry in Hindi and was one of the
founders of the Urdu language. The prevalent spirit of Hindu-Muslim integration
was reflected admirably in Khusrau’s work.
This process of bringing
Hinduism and Islam close to each other was continued by two remarkable men: Kabir and Nanak.
Islam’s spirit of
brotherhood helped in loosening the rigidity of the caste system. The
simplicity and directness of Islam led many Hindus to question the value of
conventional rituals. The interaction of the two faiths found aesthetic
expression in poetry, music and architecture.
Sikhism
Nanak - the founder of the Sikh faith,
was born to Hindu parents in Punjab and was from his childhood drawn to the
works of poet saints who sought to bring together the Hindus and the
Muslims. He performed many of the Hindu pilgrimages and also went to Mecca.
Nanak concluded that the essential teaching of both religions was the same and
dedicated his efforts to Gurdwara spreading the message of unity. The people
responded warmly to his teachings and he was soon famous as a guru –
teacher. His followers were called Sikhs - the word Sikh is derived from the
Sanskrit word shishya – disciple.
Sikhism is monotheistic,
opposed to the caste system, and it also rejects idol worship. These features
show the influence of Islam. However, the ideas of karma and rebirth are
accepted and in their actual practice of religion, Sikhs are very close to the
Hindus.
Angad succeeded Nanak as
the second Guru of the Sikhs and it was he who compiled the master’s writings
and introduced Gurumukhi as the official script of the Sikhs. Guru
Arjun, the fifth in succession, started building the Golden Temple at Amritsar
and also systematized the collection of sacred hymns and poems by Nanak, Kabir
and some other saints. Known as Adi Granth - The First Book - or Granth
Sahib - Book of the Lord - this collection became the scripture of the
Sikhs.
The growing popularity
of the new religion alarmed orthodox Muslims. The Sikh Gurus preaching communal
harmony were persecuted. Guru Arjun was charged with sedition and executed in
1606. This martyrdom convinced his successors that Sikhs must have military
training to defend themselves.
Guru Gobind Singh, the
tenth in line of succession from Nanak, transformed the Sikhs into a martial
community. He introduced rites of initiation resembling the recruitment into
the army and bound the Sikhs into a tightly knit armed fraternity termed the Khalsa
or pure. To guard against victimisation of individuals he decided to terminate
the succession of gurus. He asked his followers to look upon the Granth
Sahib as the only master, the supreme object of veneration.
Although they constitute
less than 2 per cent of India’s population, their physical appearance and dress
sets them apart. They are tall and well-built, the men grow beards and wear
turbans over their long hair which is never cut. Every Sikh considers it a
religious obligation to wear a kara - steel bangle - on his right wrist.
There are other religious injunctions, like abstaining from tobacco, which are
obeyed rigorously.
Christianity
Christianity in India is
as old as Saint Thomas, one of the 12 Apostles of Jesus
Christ, who landed in Kerala and brought Christianity to India, soon after the
death of Christ. Later he died in Tamil Nadu. He is buried in Chennai. The
Syrian Christian Church of India, traces its origins to St. Thomas. Some
sources identify Saint Bartholomew as the first Christian missionary in India.
Latin historians in the Middle Ages have made frequent references to Christian
settlements in India. Historically, however, Christian missionary activity can
be said to have begun with the arrival of Saint Francis Xavier in 1542. His
tomb in Goa is still visited by thousands of Catholics every year.
Saint Francis Xavier was
followed by Portuguese missionaries. Some of them visited Akbar’s court, and
even entertained the hope of converting the Emperor. Other Catholic countries
soon began to send missionaries to India. In the 18th Century,
Protestant missionaries, especially from Denmark, Holland and Germany, started
their work in India. The British conquest naturally gave the Anglican Church an
advantage over others.
Christianity began to
play a constructive role in India through the labours of two remarkable men,
William Carey and Alexander Duff. Carey founded the Seminary at Serampore and
was closely associated with the Fort William College at Calcutta. He
established the first printing press and the first newspaper in Bengali.
Alexander Duff came to India in 1830 and continued Carey’s educational and
social work. Throughout the 19th Century, Catholic as well as
Protestant missionaries besides preaching Christian doctrines, made
contributions to education.
Indian social reformers,
like Keshab Chandra Sen of the Brahmo Samaj, realized that Christianity
had enriched India’s religious life in many ways. The mystic Ramakrishna lived
as a Christian for several months.
An Indian Christian
poet, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, is regarded as one of the pioneers of modern
Bengali poetry. Significantly, he selected a theme from the Ramayan for
his most important poem. Later, Tagore paid homage to Jesus Christ in several
poems. Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by Christianity and often quoted
from The Bible to justify the course of action he prescribed. His writings and
speeches are full of excerpts from the New Testament. Indian Christians, who
now number nearly 25 million, represent almost every denomination of
Christianity: Roman Catholic, Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, Maronite,
Seventh-Day Adventist, Pentecoste, and many others.